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| Principle | Meaning | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Feedstock / raw materials | The substances used to make the product. | Must be available, affordable and of reliable quality. |
| Rate of production | How quickly product is made. | Affects output and cost efficiency. |
| Yield | Amount of desired product obtained. | Higher yield reduces waste and improves profit. |
| Co-products | Other useful products formed in the process. | Can improve economics if sold or reused. |
| Waste disposal | Treatment or safe handling of unwanted material. | Needed for legal, safety and environmental reasons. |
| Quality control | Checking purity and performance of product. | Ensures product is safe and meets standards. |
| Safety | Protecting workers, equipment and the public. | Especially important with toxic, hot, corrosive or high-pressure systems. |
| Costs | Capital and running expenses. | Determines whether the process is commercially viable. |
| Process Type | Description | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|
| Batch | Fixed amounts of reactants are processed, then emptied before the next run. | Flexible; good for smaller volumes and specialist products. | Slower; more labour; downtime between batches. |
| Continuous | Reactants flow in continuously and products are removed continuously. | Efficient; lower cost per unit; good for large-scale production. | Expensive setup; less flexible; shutdowns are disruptive. |
| Factor | Why it matters |
|---|---|
| Raw materials nearby | Reduces transport cost and supply delays. |
| Energy supply | Many processes need electricity, steam, heat or high pressure. |
| Water supply | Needed for cooling, cleaning, steam generation and sometimes reaction use. |
| Transport links | Road, rail, ports and pipelines help move materials and products. |
| Skilled labour | Plants need operators, technicians, chemists and engineers. |
| Market access | Closer to customers can reduce delivery costs. |
| Environmental regulations | Emissions, wastewater and waste handling must meet legal standards. |
| Safety buffer | Hazardous plants may need distance from homes and schools. |
| Plant materials | Equipment must resist corrosion, heat and pressure. |
| Issue | Risk | Control |
|---|---|---|
| Flammable substances | Fire and explosion | Ventilation, flame control, careful storage |
| Corrosive chemicals | Burns and equipment damage | Protective gear, resistant materials, training |
| Toxic gases | Poisoning and air pollution | Gas monitors, scrubbers, sealed systems |
| Wastewater | River and soil pollution | Treatment before discharge |
| Solid waste | Land contamination | Recycling, reuse, safe disposal |
| Greenhouse gases | Climate impact | Efficiency, heat recovery, cleaner energy choices |
Ammonia is produced industrially by the Haber Process and can then be converted into urea, an important nitrogen fertiliser.
| Point | Key idea |
|---|---|
| Feedstocks | Ammonia and carbon dioxide |
| Main product | Urea fertiliser |
| Why important | Supplies nitrogen to crops, increasing food production |
| Industrial benefit | Uses CO₂ from other industrial streams, helping overall efficiency |
Nitric acid is an important industrial chemical used to make nitrate fertilisers.
| Aspect | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Main use | Fertiliser production |
| Importance | Improves crop yield |
| Safety issue | Nitrates and strong acids require careful handling and storage |
| Environmental issue | Overuse of fertilisers can contribute to eutrophication |
Sea water contains magnesium ions. These can be precipitated and converted into magnesium oxide, a useful industrial material.
| Stage | What happens |
|---|---|
| Source | Sea water provides Mg²⁺ ions |
| Precipitation | Base is added to form magnesium hydroxide |
| Heating | Magnesium hydroxide decomposes to magnesium oxide |
| Use | MgO is used in refractory materials and other industrial applications |
A semi-continuous process is a mix of batch and continuous ideas. Some reactants may be fed in continuously while another part of the plant is still operated in a controlled run.
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Semi-continuous | Between batch and continuous operation. |
| Effluent | Waste liquid leaving a factory or industrial plant. |
| Effluent treatment | Cleaning wastewater before it is released. |
| Keyword | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Feedstock | Raw material used in the process |
| Yield | Amount of desired product formed |
| Co-product | Another useful product formed |
| Batch process | Made in separate runs |
| Continuous process | Made without stopping flow |
| Quality control | Testing that product meets standards |
| Waste treatment | Controlling pollution from the plant |
Q1. What is meant by industrial chemistry? [2]
Q2. Give two differences between a batch process and a continuous process. [4]
Q3. State four factors affecting the location of a chemical industry. [4]
Q4. Explain why waste treatment is important in industrial chemistry. [3]
Q5. Outline one Irish chemical-industry case study from this option. [5]